Reclaimed water
A combination of these technologies can meet strict treatment standards and make sure that the processed water is hygienically safe, meaning free from pathogens.[5] Municipal wastewater reuse is particularly high in the Middle East and North Africa region, in countries such as the UAE, Qatar, Kuwait and Israel.A definition by the USEPA states: "Water reuse is the method of recycling treated wastewater for beneficial purposes, such as agricultural and landscape irrigation, industrial processes, toilet flushing, and groundwater replenishing (EPA, 2004).Advances in municipal wastewater treatment technology allow communities to reuse water for many different purposes.[13][14] Large quantities of freshwater can be saved by municipal wastewater reuse and recycling, reducing environmental pollution and improving carbon footprint.[6] Municipal wastewater reuse is particularly high in the Middle East and North Africa region, in countries such as the UAE, Qatar, Kuwait and Israel.[6] For the Sustainable Development Goal 6 by the United Nations, Target 6.3 states "Halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally by 2030".[21] Treated wastewater can be reused in industry (for example in cooling towers), in artificial recharge of aquifers, in agriculture, and in the rehabilitation of natural ecosystems (for example in wetlands).Usage types are distinguished as follows: Irrigation with recycled municipal wastewater can also serve to fertilize plants if it contains nutrients, such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.When reclaimed water is used for irrigation in agriculture, the nutrient (nitrogen and phosphorus) content of the treated wastewater has the benefit of acting as a fertilizer.In emerging nations, where industrial development is outpacing environmental regulation, there are increasing risks from inorganic and organic chemicals.[31] This would be less of a concern if human excreta was kept out of sewage by using dry toilets or, alternatively, systems that treat blackwater separately from greywater.This includes slow processes of further multiple purification steps via the layers of earth/sand (absorption) and microflora in the soil (biodegradation).IPR or even unplanned potable use of reclaimed wastewater is used in many countries, where the latter is discharged into groundwater to hold back saline intrusion in coastal aquifers.IPR has generally included some type of environmental buffer, but conditions in certain areas have created an urgent need for more direct alternatives.In 1998, NASA announced it had built a human waste reclamation bioreactor designed for use in the International Space Station and a crewed Mars mission.[33][34] Aboard the International Space Station, astronauts have been able to drink recycled urine due to the introduction of the ECLSS system.The system recycles wastewater and urine back into potable water used for drinking, food preparation, and oxygen generation.In the United States, the Mississippi River serves as both the destination of sewage treatment plant effluent and the source of potable water.A combination of these technologies can meet strict treatment standards and make sure that the processed water is hygienically safe, meaning free from pathogens.[45] A 2012 study conducted by the National Research Council in the United States found that the risk of exposure to certain microbial and chemical contaminants from drinking reclaimed water does not appear to be higher than the risk experienced in some current drinking water treatment systems, and may be orders of magnitude lower.[47] It sometimes contains higher levels of nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus and oxygen which may help fertilize garden and agricultural plants when used for irrigation.Additionally, reclaimed water is utilized for street cleaning, irrigation of urban green spaces, and industrial processes.The water quality parameters included are E.coli, BOD5, total suspended solids (TSS), turbidity, legionella, and intestinal nematodes (helminth eggs).However, an evaluation carried out by the European Commission on the water reuse standards of several member states concluded that they differed in their approach.[59][clarification needed] Los Angeles County's sanitation districts started providing treated wastewater for landscape irrigation in parks and golf courses in 1929.Denver's Direct Potable Water Reuse Demonstration Project[60] examined the technical, scientific, and public acceptance aspects of DPR from 1979 to 1993.A chronic lifetime whole-animal health effects study on the 1 MGD advanced treatment plant product was conducted in conjunction with a comprehensive assessment of the chemical and microbiological water quality.[64] Wastewater reuse (planned or unplanned) is a practice which has been applied throughout human history and is closely connected to the development of sanitation.
sewagesewage treatment plantmunicipal wastewaterindustrial wastewaterreusedirrigationsurface watergroundwatergroundwater rechargetoilet flushingdrinking waterwater managementscarcitypathogensOzonationultrafiltrationaerobic treatmentmembrane bioreactorforward osmosisreverse osmosisadvanced oxidationactivated carbonpotable waterfresh watergreywaterrainwater harvestingstormwater recoverydesalinationMiddle East and North Africa regionagriculturalwater scarcitywastewaterdomesticindustrialurban runoffconstructed wetlandDunedin, Floridamunicipal wastewater treatment technologyWorld Health Organizationfood securityexcretamicropollutantsaquifersworld populationfreshwatercapital expenditureenvironmental pollutioncarbon footprintwater supplysustainable sanitationexcreta reusesustainabilitywater availabilitywater resourceswetlandsecological footprintecosystemswater cycleSustainable Development Goal 6cooling towerspublic parksroadsidesAquacultureGreenhousesViticultureCooling waterWashdownconcreteSoil compactionDust controlGolf courseRecreationalSnowmakingAquifer rechargeMarshesWildlife habitatSilviculturehydraulic fracturingnon-potableReuse of excretafertilizefertilizerfood cropsfood processingdeveloping countriesagriculturewater pollutedemerging nationspharmaceuticals, personal care productsconstructed wetlandswastewater treatmenthabitatsdisgustenvironmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutantshuman excretadry toiletsblackwatersaline intrusionmembrane filtrationhuman spaceflightwaste reclamationbioreactorInternational Space StationoxygencomposthumanurevegetableselectricityastronautseffluentsRiver ThamesLondonOxfordReadingSwindonBracknellMississippi Riverdual pipingSewage treatmenttoiletssecondary level treatmentflush toiletswater-sensitive urban designlow-impact developmentsustainable urban drainage systemsenergy-intensive process