University
[14] In modern usage, the word has come to mean "an institution of higher education offering tuition in mainly non-vocational subjects and typically having the power to confer degrees".The first documentary evidence of this comes from early in the life of the University of Bologna, which adopted an academic charter, the Constitutio Habita,[18] in 1155 or 1158,[19] which guaranteed the right of a traveling scholar to unhindered passage in the interests of education.[35] Some scholars, including George Makdisi, have argued that early medieval universities were influenced by the madrasas in Al-Andalus, the Emirate of Sicily, and the Middle East during the Crusades.[41] In 2013, Roy Lowe and Yoshihito Yasuhara claimed that the influences of scholarship from the Islamic world on the universities of Western Europe requires a reconsideration of the development of higher education, turning away from a concern with local institutional structures to a broader consideration within a global context.[47] In Europe, young men proceeded to university when they had completed their study of the trivium – the preparatory arts of grammar, rhetoric and dialectic or logic–and the quadrivium: arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy.Lay students arrived in the city from many lands entering into a contract to gain this knowledge, eventually organising themselves into Nationes, divided between that of the Cismontanes and that of the Ultramontanes.[58][59] All over Europe, rulers and city governments began to create universities to satisfy a European thirst for knowledge, and the belief that society would benefit from the scholarly expertise generated from these institutions.Princes and leaders of city governments perceived the potential benefits of having a scholarly expertise developed with the ability to address difficult problems and achieve desired ends.The emergence of humanism was essential to this understanding of the possible utility of universities as well as the revival of interest in knowledge gained from ancient Greek texts.[60] The recovery of Aristotle's works – more than 3000 pages of it would eventually be translated – fuelled a spirit of inquiry into natural processes that had already begun to emerge in the 12th century."[62] After Aristotle re-emerged, a community of scholars, primarily communicating in Latin, accelerated the process and practice of attempting to reconcile the thoughts of Greek antiquity, and especially ideas related to understanding the natural world, with those of the church."[65] During the Early Modern period (approximately late 15th century to 1800), the universities of Europe would see a tremendous amount of growth, productivity and innovative research.War, plague, famine, regicide, and changes in religious power and structure often adversely affected the societies that provided support for universities.Universities were also reluctant to give up older curricula, and the continued reliance on the works of Aristotle defied contemporary advancements in science and the arts.There was a collegiate or tutorial model based on the system at University of Oxford where teaching and organization was decentralized and knowledge was more of a generalist nature.[73] Early Modern universities initially continued the curriculum and research of the Middle Ages: natural philosophy, logic, medicine, theology, mathematics, astronomy, astrology, law, grammar and rhetoric.[76] Professors of medicine such as Niccolò Leoniceno, Thomas Linacre and William Cop were often trained in and taught from a humanist perspective as well as translated important ancient medical texts.Philipp Melanchthon cited the works of Erasmus as a highly influential guide for connecting theology back to original texts, which was important for the reform at Protestant universities.The emergence of classical texts brought new ideas and led to a more creative university climate (as the notable list of scholars above attests to).[81] This resistance to changes in science may have been a significant factor in driving many scientists away from the university and toward private benefactors, usually in princely courts, and associations with newly forming scientific societies.[83] It was the case that the academic foundations remaining from the Middle Ages were stable, and they did provide for an environment that fostered considerable growth and development.For instance, Melanchthon and his disciples at University of Wittenberg were instrumental for integrating Copernican mathematical constructs into astronomical debate and instruction.According to historian Elliot Krause, "The university and scholars' guilds held onto their power over membership, training, and workplace because early capitalism was not interested in it.The German, or Humboldtian model, was conceived by Wilhelm von Humboldt and based on Friedrich Schleiermacher's liberal ideas pertaining to the importance of freedom, seminars, and laboratories in universities.In 1963, the Robbins Report on universities in the United Kingdom concluded that such institutions should have four main "objectives essential to any properly balanced system: instruction in skills; the promotion of the general powers of the mind so as to produce not mere specialists but rather cultivated men and women; to maintain research in balance with teaching, since teaching should not be separated from the advancement of learning and the search for truth; and to transmit a common culture and common standards of citizenship.[97] In the United Kingdom, the Privy Council is responsible for approving the use of the word university in the name of an institution, under the terms of the Further and Higher Education Act 1992.In Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the United Kingdom, Nigeria, the Netherlands, Spain and the German-speaking countries, university is often contracted to uni.[102] Many universities in the United States offer students the opportunity to apply for financial scholarships to help pay for tuition based on academic achievement.by means of an endowment bequeathed by a wealthy woman of much piety, Fatima bint Muhammed al-Fahri.Higher education has always been an integral part of Morocco, going back to the ninth century when the Karaouine Mosque was established.It was supported by an endowment or charitable trust (waqf) that provided for at least one chair for one professor of law, income for other faculty or staff, scholarships for students, and funds for the maintenance of the building.
University (disambiguation)Alma MaterDaniel Chester FrenchColumbia UniversityUniversity of Bolognainstitutiontertiary educationresearchacademic degreesacademic disciplinesundergraduatepostgraduateCatholicrhetoriccanon lawnotarial lawworld's oldest university in continuous operationcorporationmedievalguildsstudentsteachersprincesprelatesWesternCentral EuropeGraduation ceremonyConvocationUniversity of OxfordProctorDoctors of Philosophyacademic freedomConstitutio HabitaMagna Charta UniversitatumAncient higher-learning institutionsAl-QarawiyinHarran University8th centuryUniversity of al-QarawiyyinmosquemadrasaWorld War IIAl-AndalusEmirate of SicilyMiddle EastCrusadesMedieval universityList of medieval universitiesFrederick II, Holy Roman EmperorUniversity of Naples Federico IIMedieval Christiancathedral schoolsmonastic schoolstriviumgrammardialecticquadriviumarithmeticgeometryastronomyLatin Churchpapal bullstudia generaliaCharles University in PragueJagiellonian University in KrakówUniversity of CologneUniversity of Erfurtearly medieval periodmonasteriesPope Gregory VIIUniversity of ParisSorbonneius gentiumRoman lawAlma Mater StudiorumIrneriusEmperor Justinian'sCorpus Iuris Civilisrecovery of AristotlescholasticismEnglish-speaking worldGreat Britaindisputationsnatural philosophymetaphysicsHippocratesAvicennaList of early modern universities in EuropeList of colonial universities in Latin AmericaUniversity of St AndrewsEarly Modern periodMediterranean countriesstudium generaleThirty Years' Warplaguefamineregicidenation-stateUniversity of BaselRenaissance humanismstudia humanitatisNiccolò LeonicenoThomas LinacreAndreas VesaliusCorpus JurisJacques CujasPhilipp MelanchthonErasmusGalileo GalileiMartin LutherUniversity of WittenbergUniversity of SalamancaScientific RevolutionRichard S. WestfallDictionary of Scientific BiographyHistory of European universitiesList of modern universities in Europe (1801–1945)Research universityKing's College LondonKing George IVDuke of WellingtonUniversity of Londonresearch journalsWilhelm von HumboldtFriedrich Schleiermacherfreedom