Macedonia (ancient kingdom)

Home to the ancient Macedonians, the earliest kingdom was centered on the northeastern part of the Greek peninsula,[8] and bordered by Epirus to the southwest, Illyria to the northwest, Paeonia to the north, Thrace to the east and Thessaly to the south.[14] The assertion that the Argeads descended from Temenus was accepted by the Hellanodikai authorities of the Ancient Olympic Games, permitting Alexander I of Macedon (r. 498–454 BC) to enter the competitions owing to his perceived Greek heritage.[27] His successor Perdiccas II (r. 454–413 BC) led the Macedonians to war in four separate conflicts against Athens, leader of the Delian League, while incursions by the Thracian ruler Sitalces of the Odrysian kingdom threatened Macedonia's territorial integrity in the northeast.[59] Confusing accounts in ancient sources have led modern scholars to debate how much Philip II's royal predecessors may have contributed to these reforms and the extent to which his ideas were influenced by his adolescent years of captivity in Thebes as a political hostage during the Theban hegemony, especially after meeting with the general Epaminondas.[76] Meanwhile, Phocis and Thermopylae were captured by Macedonian forces, the Delphic temple robbers were executed, and Philip II was awarded the two Phocian seats on the Amphictyonic Council and the position of master of ceremonies over the Pythian Games.Despite the Kingdom of Macedonia's official exclusion from the league, in 337 BC, Philip II was elected as the leader (hegemon) of its council (synedrion) and the commander-in-chief (strategos autokrator) of a forthcoming campaign to invade the Achaemenid Empire.[106] While utilizing effective propaganda such as the cutting of the Gordian Knot, he also attempted to portray himself as a living god and son of Zeus following his visit to the oracle at Siwah in the Libyan Desert (in modern-day Egypt) in 331 BC.[107] His attempt in 327 BC to have his men prostrate before him in Bactra in an act of proskynesis borrowed from the Persian kings was rejected as religious blasphemy by his Macedonian and Greek subjects after his court historian Callisthenes refused to perform this ritual.Before Antipater died in 319 BC, he named the staunch Argead loyalist Polyperchon as his successor, passing over his own son Cassander and ignoring the right of the king to choose a new regent (since Philip III was considered mentally unstable), in effect bypassing the council of the army as well.[125] Forming an alliance with Ptolemy, Antigonus, and Lysimachus, Cassander had his officer Nicanor capture the Munichia fortress of Athens' port town Piraeus in defiance of Polyperchon's decree that Greek cities should be free of Macedonian garrisons, sparking the Second War of the Diadochi (319–315 BC).[9] Antigonus promptly allied with Polyperchon, now based in Corinth, and issued an ultimatum of his own to Cassander, charging him with murder for executing Olympias and demanding that he hand over the royal family, King Alexander IV and the queen mother Roxana.[172] Rome responded by sending ten heavy quinqueremes from Roman Sicily to patrol the Illyrian coasts, causing Philip V to reverse course and order his fleet to retreat, averting open conflict for the time being.[181] Although Rome's envoys played a critical role in convincing Athens to join the anti-Macedonian alliance with Pergamon and Rhodes in 200 BC, the comitia centuriata (people's assembly) rejected the Roman Senate's proposal for a declaration of war on Macedonia.[185] When the comitia centuriata finally voted in approval of the Roman Senate's declaration of war in 200 BC and handed their ultimatum to Philip V, demanding that a tribunal assess the damages owed to Rhodes and Pergamon, the Macedonian king rejected it.[186] The Macedonians successfully defended their territory for roughly two years,[187] but the Roman consul Titus Quinctius Flamininus managed to expel Philip V from Macedonia in 198 BC, forcing his men to take refuge in Thessaly.[199] Although Eumenes II attempted to undermine these diplomatic relationships, Perseus fostered an alliance with the Boeotian League, extended his authority into Illyria and Thrace, and in 174 BC, won the role of managing the Temple of Apollo at Delphi as a member of the Amphictyonic Council.[note 15] From at least the reign of Philip II, the king was assisted by the royal pages (basilikoi paides), bodyguards (somatophylakes), companions (hetairoi), friends (philoi), an assembly that included members of the military, and (during the Hellenistic period) magistrates.[216] Alexander imitated various aspects of his father's reign, such as granting land and gifts to loyal aristocratic followers,[216] but lost some core support among them for adopting some of the trappings of an Eastern, Persian monarch, a "lord and master" as Carol J.[219] They were split into two categories: the agema of the hypaspistai, a type of ancient special forces usually numbering in the hundreds, and a smaller group of men handpicked by the king either for their individual merits or to honor the noble families to which they belonged.[224] The assembly was apparently given the right to judge cases of high treason and assign punishments for them, such as when Alexander the Great acted as prosecutor in the trial and conviction of three alleged conspirators in his father's assassination plot (while many others were acquitted).[243] Nicholas Viktor Sekunda states that at the beginning of Philip II's reign in 359 BC, the Macedonian army consisted of 10,000 infantry and 600 cavalry,[244] yet Malcolm Errington cautions that these figures cited by ancient authors should be treated with some skepticism.[259] Thanks to contemporary inscriptions from Amphipolis and Greia dated 218 and 181 BC, respectively, historians have been able to partially piece together the organization of the Antigonid army under Philip V.[note 30] From at least the time of Antigonus III Doson, the most elite Antigonid-period infantry were the peltasts, lighter and more maneuverable soldiers wielding peltai javelins, swords, and a smaller bronze shield than Macedonian phalanx pikemen, although they sometimes served in that capacity.[263] Following its adoption as the court language of Philip II of Macedon's regime, authors of ancient Macedonia wrote their works in Koine Greek, the lingua franca of late Classical and Hellenistic Greece.[276] Young Macedonian men were typically expected to engage in hunting and martial combat as a by-product of their transhumance lifestyle of herding livestock such as goats and sheep, while horse breeding and raising cattle were other common pursuits.[290] Mosaics with mythological themes include scenes of Dionysus riding a panther and Helen of Troy being abducted by Theseus, the latter of which employs illusionist qualities and realistic shading similar to Macedonian paintings.[290] Common themes of Macedonian paintings and mosaics include warfare, hunting, and aggressive masculine sexuality (i.e. abduction of women for rape or marriage); these subjects are at times combined within a single work and perhaps indicate a metaphorical connection.[note 41] The philosopher Aristotle, who studied at the Platonic Academy of Athens and established the Aristotelian school of thought, moved to Macedonia, and is said to have tutored the young Alexander the Great, as well as serving as an esteemed diplomat for Philip II.However, Alexander I produced proof of an Argead royal genealogy showing ancient Argive Temenid lineage, a move that ultimately convinced the Olympic Hellanodikai authorities of his Greek descent and ability to compete.[346] Macedonians then migrated to Egypt and parts of Asia, but the intensive colonization of foreign lands sapped the available manpower in Macedonia proper, weakening the kingdom in its fight with other Hellenistic powers and contributing to its downfall and conquest by the Romans.[347] However, the diffusion of Greek culture and language cemented by Alexander's conquests in West Asia and North Africa served as a "precondition" for the later Roman expansion into these territories and entire basis for the Byzantine Empire, according to Errington.
The entrance to one of the royal tombs at Vergina , a UNESCO World Heritage Site
A silver octadrachm of Alexander I of Macedon ( r. 498–454 BC ), minted c. 465–460 BC , showing an equestrian figure wearing a chlamys (short cloak) and petasos (head cap) while holding two spears and leading a horse
Macedon (orange) during the Peloponnesian War around 431 BC, with Athens and the Delian League (yellow), Sparta and Peloponnesian League (red), independent states (blue), and the Persian Achaemenid Empire (purple)
A Macedonian didrachm minted during the reign of Archelaus I of Macedon ( r. 413–399 BC )
A silver stater of Amyntas III of Macedon ( r. 393–370 BC )
Map of the Kingdom of Macedon at the death of Philip II in 336 BC (light blue), with the original territory that existed in 431 BC (red outline), and dependent states (yellow)
Alexander's empire and his route
The Stag Hunt Mosaic , c. 300 BC, from Pella ; the figure on the right is possibly Alexander the Great due to the date of the mosaic along with the depicted upsweep of his centrally-parted hair ( anastole ); the figure on the left wielding a double-edged axe (associated with Hephaistos ) is perhaps Hephaestion , one of Alexander's loyal companions.
Kingdoms of the Diadochi c. 301 BC, after the Battle of Ipsus
Kingdom of Ptolemy I Soter
Kingdom of Cassander
Kingdom of Lysimachus
Kingdom of Seleucus I Nicator
Epirus
Other
Carthage
Roman Republic
Greek States
A golden stater of Philip III Arrhidaeus ( r. 323–317 BC ) bearing images of Athena (left) and Nike (right)
Paintings of Hellenistic -era military arms and armor from a tomb in ancient Mieza (modern-day Lefkadia), Imathia , Central Macedonia , Greece , 2nd century BC
The Temple of Apollo at Corinth , built c. 540 BC, with the Acrocorinth (i.e. the acropolis of Corinth that once held a Macedonian garrison ) [ 156 ] seen in the background
A tetradrachm minted during the reign of Antigonus III Doson ( r. 229–221 BC ), possibly at Amphipolis , bearing the portrait image of Poseidon on the obverse and on the reverse a scene depicting Apollo sitting on the prow of a ship
The Kingdom of Macedonia (orange) under Philip V ( r. 221–179 BC ), with Macedonian dependent states (dark yellow), the Seleucid Empire (bright yellow), Roman protectorates (dark green), the Kingdom of Pergamon (light green), independent states (light purple), and possessions of the Ptolemaic Empire (violet purple)
A tetradrachm of Philip V of Macedon ( r. 221–179 BC ), with the king's portrait on the obverse and Athena Alkidemos brandishing a thunderbolt on the reverse
Bronze bust of Eumenes II of Pergamon , a Roman copy of a Hellenistic Greek original , from the Villa of the Papyri in Herculaneum
The Vergina Sun , the 16-ray star covering the royal burial larnax of Philip II of Macedon ( r. 359–336 BC ), discovered in the tomb of Vergina , formerly ancient Aigai
Hades abducting Persephone , fresco in the small Macedonian royal tomb at Vergina , Macedonia, Greece , c. 340 BC
Fresco of an ancient Macedonian soldier ( thorakites ) wearing chainmail armor and bearing a thureos shield, 3rd century BC, İstanbul Archaeology Museums
A mosaic of the Kasta Tomb in Amphipolis depicting the abduction of Persephone by Pluto , 4th century BC
The Lion of Amphipolis in Amphipolis , northern Greece , a 4th-century BC marble tomb sculpture [ 267 ] erected in honor of Laomedon of Mytilene , a general who served under Alexander the Great
Alexander (left), wearing a kausia and fighting an Asiatic lion with his friend Craterus (detail); late 4th-century BC mosaic , [ 287 ] Pella Museum.
Portrait bust of Aristotle , an Imperial Roman (1st or 2nd century AD) copy of a lost bronze sculpture made by Lysippos
A fresco showing Hades and Persephone riding in a chariot , from the tomb of Queen Eurydice I of Macedon at Vergina , Greece, 4th century BC
A banquet scene from a Macedonian tomb of Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki , 4th century BC; shown are six men reclining on couches , with food arranged on nearby tables, a male servant in attendance, and female musicians providing entertainment. [ 306 ]
Ruins of the ancient theatre in Maroneia , Rhodope , East Macedonia and Thrace , Greece
Tetradrachms (above) and drachms (below) issued during the reign of Alexander the Great , now in the Numismatic Museum of Athens
The Alexander Mosaic , a Roman mosaic from Pompeii , Italy, c. 100 BC
Vergina Sun
Vergina Sun
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WalbankKlaus Bringmannpolitical calculationJustinPolybiusQuintus Curtius RufusconstitutionMacedonia's militarythe Antigonid-period militaryAntigonid armyDiodorusPhilip Vabsolutismcustomary privilegesappoint a new kingtreasonPietro De FrancisciGreco-Persian Warsduring their rebellionmilitary campaigns of Alexander the GreatUpper MacedonianPerdiccas III of MacedonCynanedrachmaDemetrius of Phalerumdirect democracyPtolemy I of EgyptAcarnanian LeagueThird Philippichoplitesphalanxpikemenmilitary officersancient historiansmilitary policebodyguardpeltastairoyal guardspoken languageGreek alphabetphoneticassimilatedPhrygianBrygesloanwordsIllyrian languagesphilologistsWayback MachineCleopatra VII PhilopatorByzantine literatureAcritic songsDigenes AkritasDionysiapatronSocratesbarbarianEpirotesCypriotsHellasAeschinesmythological genealogiesHesiodCatalogue of WomenMacedonHellenHellanicus of LesbosAeolusAeolianstribesAchaeansIonianspharaohSon of RaPtolemaic successorstheir own dynasty in EgyptEncyclopædia BritannicaAreus IOhio State UniversityJohns Hopkins University PressCambridge University PressBeekes, Robert S. P.Yale University PressBorza, Eugene N.Princeton University PressBringmann, KlausCawkwell, GeorgeFaber and FaberUniversity of California PressOxford University PressUniversity of Chicago PressErrington, Robert MalcolmGruen, Erich S.Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey LemprièreWalbank, Frank WilliamClarendon PressHornblower, SimonWiley-BlackwellRealencyclopädie der Classischen AltertumswissenschaftUniversity of Toronto PressBard, Kathryn A.State University of New York PressBlackwell PublishingHarvard University PressUniversity of Illinois PressWikisource1911 Encyclopædia BritannicaAshmolean Museum of Art and ArchaeologyUniversity of OxfordMetropolitan Museum of ArtKings of MacedonCoenusTyrimmasArgaeus IPhilip IAeropus IAlcetasAmyntas IAlexander IPerdiccas IIArchelausAeropus IIAmyntas IIAmyntas IIIArgaeus IIAmyntas IVAlexander III (the Great)Philip IIIAlexander IVPhilip IVAntipater IAlexander VDemetrius IPyrrhusPtolemy CeraunusMeleagerAntipater IISosthenesAntigonus IIDemetrius IIAntigonus 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OlympiaLanguageProto-GreekMycenaeanDialectsAeolicArcadocypriotEpiroteLocrianPamphylianWritingLinear ALinear BCypriot syllabaryGreek numeralsAttic numeralsGreek colonisationAlisionBrentesionCauloniaCrotonHeraclea LucaniaHipponionHydrusKrimisaMetaurosMetapontionNeápolisPandosia (Lucania)PoseidoniaPixousRhegionScylletiumSybarisSybaris on the TraeisTerinaThuriiSicilyAkragasAkrillaiCalacteCasmenaeCatanaHelorusHeraclea MinoaHimeraHybla GereatisHybla HeraeaKamarinaLeontinoiMegara HyblaeaMessanaSegestaSelinousSyracuseTauromenionThermaeTyndarisAeolian IslandsDidymeEuonymosEreikousaHycesiaLipara/MeligounisPhoenicusaStrongyleTherassíaBalagraeBereniceCyrenePtolemaisIberian PeninsulaAkra LeukeAlonisEmporionHelikeHemeroscopionKalathousaKypselaMainakeMenestheus's LiminIllicitanus Limin/Portus IllicitanusSalaurisZacynthosAspalathosEpidaurosMelaina KorkyraNymphaionOrikonPharosTragurionThronionBlack SeaBorysthenesCharaxChersonesusDioscuriasGorgippiaHermonassaKalos LimenKerkinitisKimmerikonMyrmekionNikonionPantikapaionPhanagoriaPityusTanaisTheodosiaTyritakeAbonoteichosAmisosAnchialosAthinaBathusDionysopolisCotyoraCytorusEupatoriaHeracleaKerasousMesambriaOdessosOinòePhasisPolemonionRhizosSalmydessusSesamusSinopeThèrmaeTrapezousTripolisZalicheCitiesPeoplePlace namesTheatresOutlineMacedonia (Greece)Macedonians (Greeks)Jews of ThessalonikiSlavic speakersMacedonian BulgariansEthnic MacedoniansAromaniansMegleno-RomaniansGovernmentRoman MacedoniaBarbarian invasionsTheme of MacedoniaTheme of ThessalonicaTheme of StrymonSack of Thessalonica (904)Byzantine–Bulgarian warsSack of Thessalonica (1185)Kingdom of ThessalonicaEmpire of ThessalonicaByzantine civil war of 1321–1328Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347Zealots of ThessalonicaByzantine–Ottoman warsSiege of Thessalonica (1422–1430)Ottoman GreeceRumelia EyaletManastir VilayetSanjak of MonastirSanjak of SerfiğeSalonica VilayetSanjak of DramaSanjak of SalonicaSanjak of SirozMacedonian StruggleBalkan WarsMacedonian frontProvisional Government of National DefenceAxis occupationGreek Civil WarMacedonia naming disputePrespa agreementMinistry of Macedonia and ThraceEastern Macedonia and ThraceAgios Dimitrios Power PlantAmyntaio Power PlantDrama coal mineOlympias minePiavitsa minePort of ThessalonikiPrinos oil fieldPtolemaida-Florina coal mineSkouries mineStratoni mineThessaloniki International FairKavalaKastoriaSerresKateriniEdessaFlorinaNaousaKozaniSiatistaKilkisAxios RiverDoiran LakeFalakroGalikos RiverLake KerkiniLake KoroneiaLake OrestiadaLake PrespaSmall Prespa LakeLake VegoritidaLake VolviMount PaikoNestos (river)PindusPindus National ParkPetralona caveVasilitsaVermio MountainsVoras MountainsThasosAmmoulianiAgios AthanasiosAlexandrion (Litochoro)Archaeological ParkHellenistic theatreMount AthosByzantine monuments of ThessalonikiPlatamon CastleArchaeological Museum of AmphipolisAiani Archaeological MuseumArchaeological Museum of ThessalonikiMuseum of Byzantine cultureThe division of Alexander's empirecoloniesPtolemais HermiouAlexandrettaAntiochApameaAlexandria ArachosiaAlexandria ArianaAlexandria EschateAlexandria in the CaucasusAlexandria on the IndusAlexandria ProphthasiaAttaliaLaodicea ParalosLaodicea in PhoeniciaNicaeaPhiladelphiaSeleuciaSeleucia PieriaSerraepolisAntigonia (Paeonia)Alexandropolis MaedicaAncient Greek warsFirst Messenian WarLelantine WarSecond Messenian WarLydian–Milesian WarFirst Sacred WarSicilian WarsAeginetan WarWars of the Delian LeagueThird Messenian WarFirst Peloponnesian WarSecond Sacred WarSamian WarSecond Peloponnesian WarPhyle CampaignCorinthian WarBoeotian WarTheban–Spartan WarForeign WarExpansion of MacedoniaAntigonid–Nabataean confrontationsSeleucid–Mauryan warPyrrhus' invasion of the PeloponneseSeleucid–Parthian WarsLyttian WarSecondFourthCretan WarRoman–Seleucid WarAetolian WarWar against NabisGalatian WarMaccabean RevoltSeleucid Dynastic WarsAchaean WarMithridatic WarsWar of ActiumMilitary historyUruk periodJemdet Nasr 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