Biogeography
Knowledge of spatial variation in the numbers and types of organisms is as vital to us today as it was to our early human ancestors, as we adapt to heterogeneous but geographically predictable environments.Biogeography is an integrative field of inquiry that unites concepts and information from ecology, evolutionary biology, taxonomy, geology, physical geography, palaeontology, and climatology.[2][3] Modern biogeographic research combines information and ideas from many fields, from the physiological and ecological constraints on organismal dispersal to geological and climatological phenomena operating at global spatial scales and evolutionary time frames.Through his strong beliefs in Christianity, he was inspired to classify the living world, which then gave way to additional accounts of secular views on geographical distribution.At the birth of the 19th century, Alexander von Humboldt, known as the "founder of plant geography",[4] developed the concept of physique generale to demonstrate the unity of science and how species fit together.[16] He discussed plant distribution and his theories eventually had a great impact on Charles Darwin, who was inspired to consider species adaptations and evolution after learning about botanical geography.Darwin's theories started a biological segment to biogeography and empirical studies, which enabled future scientists to develop ideas about the geographical distribution of organisms around the globe.The evidence for this theory is in the geological similarities between varying locations around the globe, the geographic distribution of some fossils (including the mesosaurs) on various continents, and the jigsaw puzzle shape of the landmasses on Earth.Though Wegener did not know the mechanism of this concept of Continental Drift, this contribution to the study of biogeography was significant in the way that it shed light on the importance of environmental and geographic similarities or differences as a result of climate and other pressures on the planet.Importantly, late in his career Wegener recognised that testing his theory required measurement of continental movement rather than inference from fossils species distributions.[21]: 311 p. Martin applied several disciplines including ecology, botany, climatology, geology, and Pleistocene dispersal routes to examine the herpetofauna of a relatively small and largely undisturbed area, but ecologically complex, situated on the threshold of temperate – tropical (nearctic and neotropical) regions, including semiarid lowlands at 70 meters elevation and the northernmost cloud forest in the western hemisphere at over 2200 meters.[15] Biogeography continues as a point of study for many life sciences and geography students worldwide, however it may be under different broader titles within institutions such as ecology or evolutionary biology.In recent years, one of the most important and consequential developments in biogeography has been to show how multiple organisms, including mammals like monkeys and reptiles like squamates, overcame barriers such as large oceans that many biogeographers formerly believed were impossible to cross.[26] Two main types of satellite imaging that are important within modern biogeography are Global Production Efficiency Model (GLO-PEM) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS).Using molecular analyses and corroborated by fossils, it has been possible to demonstrate that perching birds evolved first in the region of Australia or the adjacent Antarctic (which at that time lay somewhat further north and had a temperate climate).From there, they spread to the other Gondwanan continents and Southeast Asia – the part of Laurasia then closest to their origin of dispersal – in the late Paleogene, before achieving a global distribution in the early Neogene.[citation needed] Paleobiogeography also helps constrain hypotheses on the timing of biogeographic events such as vicariance and geodispersal, and provides unique information on the formation of regional biotas.For example, data from species-level phylogenetic and biogeographic studies tell us that the Amazonian teleost fauna accumulated in increments over a period of tens of millions of years, principally by means of allopatric speciation, and in an arena extending over most of the area of tropical South America (Albert & Reis 2011).In other words, unlike some of the well-known insular faunas (Galapagos finches, Hawaiian drosophilid flies, African rift lake cichlids), the species-rich Amazonian ichthyofauna is not the result of recent adaptive radiations.
Alfred Russel WallaceEvolutionary biologyDarwin's finchesJohn GouldIntroductionOutlineGlossaryEvidenceHistoryPopulation geneticsVariationDiversityMutationNatural selectionAdaptationPolymorphismGenetic driftGene flowSpeciationAdaptive radiationCo-operationCoevolutionCoextinctionContingencyDivergenceConvergenceParallel evolutionExtinctionOrigin of lifeCommon descentHistory of lifeTimeline of evolutionHuman evolutionRecent human evolutionPhylogenyBiodiversityClassificationEvolutionary taxonomyCladisticsTransitional fossilExtinction eventOverviewRenaissanceBefore DarwinDarwinOrigin of SpeciesBefore synthesisModern synthesisMolecular evolutionEvo-devoCurrent researchHistory of speciationHistory of paleontologytimelineApplications of evolutionBiosocial criminologyEcological geneticsEvolutionary aestheticsEvolutionary anthropologyEvolutionary computationEvolutionary ecologyEvolutionary economicsEvolutionary epistemologyEvolutionary ethicsEvolutionary game theoryEvolutionary linguisticsEvolutionary medicineEvolutionary neuroscienceEvolutionary physiologyEvolutionary psychologyExperimental evolutionInvasion geneticsIsland biogeographyPhylogeneticsPaleontologySelective breedingSpeciation experimentsSociobiologySystematicsUniversal DarwinismEugenicsEvolution as fact and theoryDysgenicsSocial effectsCreation–evolution controversyTheistic evolutionObjections to evolutionLevel of supportNature-nurture controversydistributionspeciesecosystemsgeographic spacegeological timecommunitieslatitudeelevationisolationPhytogeographyZoogeographymushroomsancestorsenvironmentsecologytaxonomygeologyphysical geographypalaeontologyclimatologydispersalgeologicalclimatologicalevolutionaryCarl LinnaeusAlexander von HumboldtFrancisco Jose de CaldasHewett Cottrell WatsonAlphonse de CandollePhilip Lutley Sclatercontinental driftglaciationsea levelriver capturelandmassecologicalrefugium