Vacuum
Ultra-high vacuum chambers, common in chemistry, physics, and engineering, operate below one trillionth (10−12) of atmospheric pressure (100 nPa), and can reach around 100 particles/cm3.[6] Evangelista Torricelli produced the first laboratory vacuum in 1643, and other experimental techniques were developed as a result of his theories of atmospheric pressure.[9] Following Plato, however, even the abstract concept of a featureless void faced considerable skepticism: it could not be apprehended by the senses, it could not, itself, provide additional explanatory power beyond the physical volume with which it was commensurate and, by definition, it was quite literally nothing at all, which cannot rightly be said to exist.In the medieval Muslim world, the physicist and Islamic scholar Al-Farabi wrote a treatise rejecting the existence of the vacuum in the 10th century.[13][14] European scholars such as Roger Bacon, Blasius of Parma and Walter Burley in the 13th and 14th century focused considerable attention on issues concerning the concept of a vacuum.Although Descartes agreed with the contemporary position, that a vacuum does not occur in nature, the success of his namesake coordinate system and more implicitly, the spatial–corporeal component of his metaphysics would come to define the philosophically modern notion of empty space as a quantified extension of volume.[17] There was much discussion of whether the air moved in quickly enough as the plates were separated, or, as Walter Burley postulated, whether a 'celestial agent' prevented the vacuum arising.While outer space provides the most rarefied example of a naturally occurring partial vacuum, the heavens were originally thought to be seamlessly filled by a rigid indestructible material called aether.In 1912, astronomer Henry Pickering commented: "While the interstellar absorbing medium may be simply the ether, [it] is characteristic of a gas, and free gaseous molecules are certainly there".Werner Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, formulated in 1927, predicted a fundamental limit within which instantaneous position and momentum, or energy and time can be measured.The black hole (with zero electric charge) is an elegant example of a region completely "filled" with vacuum, but still showing a strong curvature.The Earth's atmospheric pressure drops to about 32 millipascals (4.6×10−6 psi) at 100 kilometres (62 mi) of altitude,[36] the Kármán line, which is a common definition of the boundary with outer space.The thermosphere in this range has large gradients of pressure, temperature and composition, and varies greatly due to space weather.But although it meets the definition of outer space, the atmospheric density within the first few hundred kilometers above the Kármán line is still sufficient to produce significant drag on satellites.Most artificial satellites operate in this region called low Earth orbit and must fire their engines every couple of weeks or a few times a year (depending on solar activity).[37] The drag here is low enough that it could theoretically be overcome by radiation pressure on solar sails, a proposed propulsion system for interplanetary travel.One of the most important parameters is the mean free path (MFP) of residual gases, which indicates the average distance that molecules will travel between collisions with each other.A submarine maintaining an internal pressure of 1 atmosphere submerged to a depth of 10 atmospheres (98 metres; a 9.8-metre column of seawater has the equivalent weight of 1 atm) is effectively a vacuum chamber keeping out the crushing exterior water pressures, though the 1 atm inside the submarine would not normally be considered a vacuum.The SI unit of pressure is the pascal (symbol Pa), but vacuum is often measured in torrs, named for an Italian physicist Torricelli (1608–1647).[41] Mechanical or elastic gauges depend on a Bourdon tube, diaphragm, or capsule, usually made of metal, which will change shape in response to the pressure of the region in question.Ionization gauge calibration is very sensitive to construction geometry, chemical composition of gases being measured, corrosion and surface deposits.The composition of gases at high vacuums will usually be unpredictable, so a mass spectrometer must be used in conjunction with the ionization gauge for accurate measurement.Deep vacuum lowers the boiling point of liquids and promotes low temperature outgassing which is used in freeze drying, adhesive preparation, distillation, metallurgy, and process purging.Outgassed water can condense in the oil of rotary vane pumps and reduce their net speed drastically if gas ballasting is not used.To continue evacuating a chamber indefinitely without requiring infinite growth, a compartment of the vacuum can be repeatedly closed off, exhausted, and expanded again.The water absorption of aluminium and palladium becomes an unacceptable source of outgassing, and even the adsorptivity of hard metals such as stainless steel or titanium must be considered.Humans and animals exposed to vacuum will lose consciousness after a few seconds and die of hypoxia within minutes, but the symptoms are not nearly as graphic as commonly depicted in media and popular culture.The gas may bloat the body to twice its normal size and slow circulation, but tissues are elastic and porous enough to prevent rupture.Shuttle astronauts wore a fitted elastic garment called the Crew Altitude Protection Suit (CAPS) which prevents ebullism at pressures as low as 2 kPa (15 Torr).[49] Eardrums and sinuses may be ruptured by rapid decompression, soft tissues may bruise and seep blood, and the stress of shock will accelerate oxygen consumption leading to hypoxia.
vacuum cleanerVacuum (disambiguation)Free space (disambiguation)bell jarBremerhavenmatterpressureatmospheric pressurelaboratorysuctionUltra-high vacuumOuter spacephilosophicalClemens TimplerEvangelista Torricelliincandescent light bulbsvacuum tubeshuman spaceflightGreek philosophersatomismLucretiusHero of AlexandriaAristotlePhysicsMuslim worldAl-FarabiAhmad DallalAbū Rayhān al-BīrūnīAl-JazarischolarsRoger BaconBlasius of ParmaWalter Burleyhorror vacuiParis condemnationsBishopÉtienne TempiersupernaturalStoic physicsRené Descartesdichotomynamesake coordinate systemTorricellimercurybarometerthought experimentsJean BuridanbellowsCrookes tubecathode raysGeissler tubeBlaise PascalOtto von Guerickevacuum pumpMagdeburg hemispheresRobert BoyleRobert HookeAugust ToeplerToepler pumpHeinrich GeissleraetherpneumaAether (mythology)Isaac Newtonrefractionluminiferous aetherastronomerHenry PickeringPaul DiracDirac seaDirac equationpositronWerner Heisenberguncertainty principlemomentumstress–energy tensorgeneral relativityEinstein field equationsRicci tensorspace-timegravitational wavesWeyl tensorblack holeclassical electromagnetismQED vacuumQCD vacuumvacuum fluctuationsvirtual particlerelative permittivityspeed of lightSI unitssuperposition principleelectric fieldvectorpermittivitypermeabilityGaussian unitscharacteristic impedanceimpedance of free spaceelectric displacementmagnetic fieldmagnetic inductionVacuum statespontaneous parametric down-conversionquantum mechanicsquantum field theoryground stateHilbert spacequantum electrodynamicsquantum chromodynamicsphotonsblackbody photonsvirtual particlesvacuum energyspontaneous emissionLamb shiftCoulomb's lawelectric potentialcosmological inflationstationary pointconfiguration spaceString theorystring theory landscapemagnetosphereplasmahydrogen