Old Assyrian period
As in other societies of the Ancient Near East, the Old Assyrians practiced slavery, though confusion resulting from the terminology used in the texts might mean that many, but not all, of the supposed slaves were actually free servants.[11] Though men and women had different duties and responsibilities, they had more or less the same legal rights, with both being allowed to inherit property, make wills, initiate divorce proceedings and participate in trade.[13] Modern researchers divide the thousands of years of ancient Assyrian history into several stages based on political events and gradual changes in language.[20] Assur's independence was likely achieved in conjunction with the last Ur III ruler, Ibbi-Sin (c. 2028–2004 BC), losing his administrative grip on the peripheral regions of his empire.Where this copper came from is not clear, perhaps Assyrian miners made the long trip to Ergani in the north-west, in later texts described as a significant site of copper-mining.It is however possible that the cultural traditions that reached Assur during the time of its early trade network played some role in the rise of the first Assyrian territorial state centuries later.In addition to trade, the cuneiform records at Kültepe also provide insight into the family lives of the traders, who often corresponded with their wives back home in Assur.[39] The original trading colony at Kültepe appears to have been burnt down c. 1836 BC, which led to the preservation of the thousands of tablets, but it was shortly thereafter rebuilt, as attested by the presence of later Assyrian activity in the second layer.[36][41] Though the traders had to pay road taxes and tolls to the various states and rulers in the lands in-between, profits were massive since the Assyrians sold many of their goods at double the price in Mesopotamia, or even more.[42] The portion of the Old Assyrian period that is best historically attested, chiefly through extensive records found in the ruins of the city of Mari, is the time of Shamshi-Adad I (c. 1808–1776 BC) and his sons Ishme-Dagan I and Yasmah-Adad.Threatened by Ipiq-Adad II in Eshnunna, Shamshi-Adad sought refuge in southern Mesopotamia for several years but returned to Ekallatum c. 1811 BC and conquered his rival.[1] After conquering both Eshnunna and Assur, Shamshi-Adad began extensive campaigns of conquest which culminated in his victory over Yahdun-Lim, the king of Mari, c. 1792 BC.[46] In c. 1772 BC, the new king of Eshnunna, Ibal-pi-el II invaded Ishme-Dagan's kingdom, occupying Assur, Ekallatum and Qattare before seizing Shamshi-Adad's old capital at Shubut-Enlil.[46] Ibal-pi-el II's invasion was eventually pushed back by Zimri-Lim of Mari and around this time, probably with the aid of the Babylonians, Ishme-Dagan returned to power in Ekallatum and Assur.[49] The Assyrian King List, the only real overarching source for the period,[53] presents a continuous sequence of rulers during this time,[49] but its account of at least the decades following Shamshi-Adad's death is clearly incomplete and does not fully reflect the politically uncertain time that followed,[54][55] when Shamshi-Adad's Amorite descendants, native Assyrians, and Hurrians appear to have fought one another for control of Assur.The precise relationships between the rulers might however not be fully reliable, as there is evidence to suggest that the genealogy of the early Adaside dynasty was at least partially reconstructed by later scribes.The inscriptions by these kings demonstrate that many of the buildings constructed earlier in the Old Assyrian period were repaired, rebuilt and extended under their reigns, including the temples dedicated to Ishtar and Adad, as well as the walls of the city itself.On inscribed bricks, used in the construction projects, Shamshi-Adad was more modest and assumed the for Assur more traditional style of ensí (the Sumerian version of the Assyrian Išši'ak) of Ashur.It is possible that the seated figure in the Puzur-Ashur dynasty seals should be interpreted as Ashur, with the bald servant being led before him by a goddess being the Assyrian king.[93] Though the seated figure is not given any other visual markers of divinity (such as horns or other non-human body features), the symbolism alone could not theologically be applied by the Old Assyrians to anyone but Ashur.The middle portion of his seal is not known due to the fragmentary nature of all known surviving impressions, which means that it is impossible to determine whether a seated figure was depicted there or not.[97] Society was instead divided into two main groups: slaves (subrum) and free citizens, referred to as awīlum ("men") or DUMU Aššur ("sons of Ashur").Deceased family members were often honored with prayers and offerings, a practice made easier since they were typically buried beneath the houses of their descendants and relatives.Because many individuals designated as wardum in Old Assyrian texts are described as handling property and carrying out administrative tasks on behalf of their masters, many may have in actuality been free servants and not slaves in the common meaning of the term.At times, men engaged in sexual relations with their female slaves and they were sometimes forced to become pregnant and give birth to children on behalf of infertile owners.[110] As can be gathered from hiring contracts and other records, the trade involved people of many different occupations, including porters, guides, donkey drivers, agents, traders, bakers and bankers.[113] Evidence of what the citizens of Assur itself ate during the Old Assyrian period is very limited, consisting only of a few mentions in letters of wives buying barley and preparing bread and beer.[114] Though beer and water were the primary drinks, the preserved texts also demonstrate a great appreciation for wine,[114] seen as a luxury commodity and called kerānum or, more rarely, karānum in Assyrian.[115] Wine was mainly made from grapes grown in Cappadocia,[114] though other sources existed as well, such as southern Anatolia or certain sites alongside the Euphrates river or Taurus Mountains.In the 13th century BC, during the Middle Assyrian period, King Shalmaneser I had to adjust and correct the calendar, moving the months back to their original intended position.
AkkadianSumerianAmoriteAncient Mesopotamian religionMonarchyNotable kingsPuzur-Ashur IErishum ISargon IShamshi-Adad IBel-baniPuzur-Ashur IIIEriba-Adad IBronze AgeThird Dynasty of UrAdaside dynastyMitanniEarly Assyrian periodMiddle Assyrian EmpireAssyriaMiddle Assyrian periodNeo-Assyrian periodPost-imperial periodHistory of the AssyriansAssyriancity-stateAshur-uballit IAkkadian languageAssyrian kingsZagros MountainsAnatoliaKültepeShamshi Adad IShubat-EnlilOld Babylonian EmpireEshnunnaHittitesKlaas VeenhofMesopotamiaNaram-SinIbbi-SinShalim-ahumIlu-shumaErganiAssyrian King Listfree tradeIkunumPuzur-Ashur IIIpiq-Adad IIEkallatumKarum (trade post)cylinder sealsKaysericuneiformIshme-Dagan IYasmah-AdadErishum IIYahdun-LimArraphaHammurabiBabylonYamhadZimri-LimIbal-pi-el IIMut-AshkurRimushHurriansAshur-dugulPuzur-SinAsinumAshur-apla-idiNasir-SinSin-namirIpqi-IshtarAdad-salulueponymsShu-NinuaNinevehAncient Near EastHittiteMursili IKassitepharaohsShamshi-Adad IIIAshur-nirari IEnlil-nasir IŠuppiluliuma ITushrattaArtatama IITaurus MountainsUpper ZabMiddle AssyrianmudbrickList of Assyrian kingsLibayaSharma-Adad IIptar-SinBazayaLullayaSharma-Adad IIErishum IIIShamshi-Adad IIIshme-Dagan IINur-iliAshur-shaduniAshur-rabi IAshur-nadin-ahhe IEnlil-nasir IIAshur-nirari IIAshur-bel-nisheshuAshur-rim-nisheshuAshur-nadin-ahhe IIoligarchyautocratsprimus inter pareslapis lazulimonopolyking of the UniverseTigrisEuphratesmonogamouswet nursesAncient Mesopotamian underworldshekelsbarleysourdough