Microbial toxin
Many microbial toxins promote infection and disease by directly damaging host tissues and by disabling the immune system.Endotoxins most commonly refer to the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or lipooligosaccharide (LOS) that are in the outer plasma membrane of Gram-negative bacteria.Exotoxins are typically proteins with enzymatic activity that interfere with host cells triggering the symptoms associated with the disease.[4] Endotoxins most commonly refer to the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or lipooligosaccharide (LOS) that are in the outer plasma membrane of Gram-negative bacteria.[7] Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) are the causative agents of the deadly food poisoning disease botulism, and could pose a major biological warfare threat due to their extreme toxicity and ease of production.They also serve as powerful tools to treat an ever expanding list of medical conditions that benefit from its paralytic properties, an example drug with BoNTs as the active ingredient is Botox.BoNTs are now largely being studied due to their ability to aid in chronic inflammatory diseases such as acne, multiple sclerosis, and for cosmetic purposes.Glycine is an important amino acid that is essential for adequate nervous system function aiding in cell communication throughout the body.When tetanus toxin enters the body it is taken up by cholinergic nerve endings traveling axonally into the brain and spinal cord, disrupting motor function in individuals.[8] Within the STEC strains, a subgroup classified as enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC) represent a class of pathogens with more severe virulence factors in addition to the ability to produce Stxs.[7] There are around 200 strains of STEC, and the wide range of diversity and virulence between them can be partly attributed to phage-mediated horizontal transfer of genetic material.[9] Anthrax disease in humans results from infection with toxin producing Bacillus anthracis strains that can be inhaled, ingested in contaminated food or drink, or obtained through breaks in the skin like cuts or scrapes.[7] This causes an increase in intracellular cAMP and forces intestinal cells to expel significant amounts of water and electrolytes into the lumen.These marine biotoxins are dangerous to human health and have been widely studied due to their high potential to bioaccumulate in edible parts of seafood.These harmful algal blooms are more likely to be produced at a dangerous amount when there is an excess of nutrients, the temperature is 20 °C, there is more light, and calmer waters.[17] Processes that promote an excess of nutrients, and human activities, such as agricultural runoff and sewage overflows, are primarily responsible.[16] Other factors include algal species and grazers being in higher concentrations, allowing for an abundance of cyanobacterial organisms that are associated with the production of toxins.[18] The adsorption is passive, and the biotoxins adhere to porous, resin filled sachets, or SPATT bags where they are then physically removed and examined.[16] Other drawbacks, such as a lack in calibration and the ability to only monitor dissolved toxins, make it difficult for this tool to be implemented in a more widespread manner.[23] A major aspect of immunochemical methods being tested in laboratories are uses of nanowires and other nanomaterials to detect microbial toxins.[26] Once a human consumes the toxin, the individual could experience mild symptoms such as paresthesias of the lips or tongue, vomiting and headaches.It has been identified as the viral enterotoxin based on the observation that the protein caused diarrhea when administered intraperitoneally or intra-ileally in infant mice in an age-dependent manner.[28] NSP4 can induce aqueous secretion in the gastrointestinal tract of neonatal mice through activation of an age- and Ca2+-dependent plasma membrane anion permeability.[9] Many well known bacterial toxins are produced from specific strains of the bacteria species that have obtained toxigenicity through lysogenic conversion, pseudolysogeny, or horizontal gene transfer.[37] Mycotoxins gain access into the body of a human or animal by food, they can contaminate many different types of agriculture during cultivation, harvesting, storage, and areas with high humidity.The T-2 toxin was an outbreak and made humans develop symptoms like food poisoning, chills, nausea, dizziness, etc.[38] The trichothecenes mycotoxin affects animals by decreasing plasma glucose, red blood cell and leukocyte counts.[38] Zearalenone is a non-steroidal estrogenic mycotoxin that is found in farm animal's reproductive disorders and in humans it causes hypoestrogenic syndrome.[38] Effects that come from zearalenone include enlarged uterus, improperly running reproductive tract, decreasing the fertility in women, and causes progesterone and estradiol levels to become abnormal.